Napoleon Bonaparte: Was He a Hero or Villain?

Napoleon Bonaparte is widely regarded as one of the most courageous military commanders in history and is recognized as the most powerful king in Europe. However, he remains one of the most controversial figures in history, with many people praising his capabilities while others criticize his hunger for power. There are also questions about the immense loss of life attributed to him: What is the truth? Was he a hero of the masses or the vilest of villains? In this article, we will talk about Who Napoleon was and How Napoleon Conquered Europe.

Early Life of Napoleon:

Napoleon was born on August 15th, 1769, on the island of Corsica. The island is situated between France and Italy. During the 18th century, Corsica was under the rule of a country that no longer exists, the Republic of Genoa. This was the flag of the Republic of Genoa. Several territories that are now part of Italy and Greece were under the control of this country. One such territory was Corsica, but the Corsicans were fed up with Genean rule. They were fueled by a burgeoning sense of nationalism and a desire to live in a free country.

Pasquale Paoli emerged as a leader in the Corsican struggle for independence, and a young Napoleon embraced Corsican nationalism, inspired by his childhood idol Paoli. By the 1760s, Corsica found itself embroiled in war, while the Republic of Genoa, burdened by debt and war, decided to sell the island of Corsica to France in 1768, literally.

This decision caused unrest among Corsican freedom fighters, but there wasn’t much they could do to resist the might of France’s imperial power. The turning point arrived in 1769 when the French army clashed with Corsican forces during the Battle of Ponte Novu. Following a swift victory, France claimed Corsica as its territory. Shortly thereafter, Napoleon Bonaparte was born. His father, Carlo, was a lawyer who initially fought alongside Corsican freedom fighters, but Paoli had to flee the country after the French army’s triumph, and Carlo switched allegiance. The shift was notable because Carlo became an ardent supporter of the French royalty and used his connections to make advances in his career, securing the status of Nobility.

By 1777, he had become Corsica’s representative to the court of the new French king, Louis XVI. This transformation bothered Napoleon since he harbored no fondness for his father. He viewed his father as a coward and a deserter. However, it was through his father’s connections that Napoleon and his brother Joseph secured scholarships, enabling Napoleon to enroll in the French Military College. While at college, Napoleon was surrounded by the children of French aristocrats and faced ridicule due to his distinctive accent. Unfazed, he refrained from socializing with his peers, viewing the French as colonizers. His dream was to witness his country, Corsica, achieving independence. Napoleon’s isolation drove him to find solace in books, particularly drawn to the Enlightenment-age philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, primarily because Rousseau wrote about Corsican freedom and considered the Corsicans brave in his writings.

Interests of Napoleon:

In addition to philosophy, Napoleon exhibited a keen interest in mathematics, history, and geography, excelling in these subjects. Among his favorite readings was Plutarch’s ‘Parallel Lives,’ a compilation of 45 biographies featuring historical figures such as Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar. Napoleon found inspiration in Caesar, often drawing comparisons. Upon completing his schooling, Napoleon joined a military academy in Paris, specializing in artillery. After graduating as the second lieutenant of the Royal Artillery in the French army, he would often return to Corsica, continuing to idolize Pasquale Paoli. However, the landscape changed in 1789 with the onset of the French Revolution.

Pasquale Paoli:

During this period, Corsica came under the jurisdiction of the new French National Assembly, which led to Pasquale Paoli’s pardon. After 20 years of exile, Paoli returned and was warmly welcomed by the people of Corsica, including Napoleon. Following subsequent elections in Corsica, Pasquale Paoli emerged victorious and became the President. Despite Napoleon’s ‘traitorous’ father having passed away, and Napoleon holding Paoli in high regard, Paoli harbored resentment toward Napoleon’s family. As a result, Paoli declared that such traitorous families could not live in Corsica, prompting Napoleon and his family to relocate from Corsica to France in June 1793.

Jacobin Group:

Afterward, Paoli cut off ties with the French Revolutionary Assembly and instead sided with their adversary the British. As a result, the Anglo-Corsican Kingdom was established in 1794, pushing France out of Corsica and turning it into a puppet state under British influence. However, this arrangement only lasted for two years, as France launched an attack in 1796, retaking Corsica from British control. Meanwhile, France was in the midst of a civil war, with different factions of French revolutionaries and counter-revolutionaries fighting against each other.

The people were divided into various groups, each with their own agendas. In 1793, the Jacobins, a political group led by Maximillian Robespierre, came into power and formed the French government. During this tumultuous period, Napoleon expressed his support for the Jacobin government in a political pamphlet, which caught the attention of Robespierre’s brother and greatly impressed him. This gave a significant boost to Napoleon’s career prospects.

Napoleon at French Naval Base:

In September 1793, Napoleon’s popularity soared further after an event unfolded at Toulon, a French naval base. A group of rebels had incited an uprising, followed by British attacks. The French Army sent Napoleon to take command at the location, where he was serving as Senior Gunner and Artillery Commander. Napoleon devised a strategic plan to win the conflict and shared it with his commanders. The plan involved capturing a fort, securing a hill for artillery dominance, and launching attacks on British ships. Despite suffering significant injuries, Napoleon fought with remarkable bravery for three months, leading the French army to emerge victorious. General Dugomere, the French Army’s commander, spoke highly of Napoleon, stating,

“I have no words to describe Bonaparte’s merit: much technical skill, an equal degree of intelligence, and too much gallantry… Napoleon is an amazing man.”

Recognizing his contributions, Napoleon was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General at the young age of 24.

Maximilian Robespierre:

During this period, France was engulfed in a civil war, and Maximilian Robespierre aimed to bring about significant reforms. He proposed universal male suffrage, which granted voting rights to all men who were above 18 years of age. Although women were not given political rights, several reforms were implemented for them, including the right to divorce, which was previously unavailable to them. Additionally, women were given access to education and work opportunities. Robespierre’s influence extended to the abolition of slavery in France and the French colonies, leaving a lasting impact reflected in the numerous roads and metro stations named after him in France. However, Robespierre’s tenure was controversial, especially because of the Reign of Terror.

French Revolution and Napoleon:

During the French Revolution, the government executed thousands of citizens on mere suspicion of opposing their rule. This led to the death of at least 20,000 French people. At the same time, the government started to dismantle Catholic Christianity in France by seizing church properties and promoting a singular Supreme God to be revered through acts of service to the people. Amidst these challenges and instability, a coup took place in July 1794 against the Jacobin government, resulting in its complete overthrow and the execution of Robespierre. In August 1794, Napoleon, who supported the toppled government, was imprisoned. He defended himself vigorously and secured his release from jail after only a few weeks. The orchestrator of this coup was the well-known figure Paul Barras, who had known Napoleon since the Siege of Toulon and gradually developed a favorable opinion of him.

Napoleon became General:

In October 1795, Napoleon was given the responsibility of putting down a revolution, even though the French army was outnumbered by a ratio of 1 to 6. With only 40 cannons and limited infantry, Napoleon was able to successfully suppress the uprising within 2 hours. This pleased Paul Barras, who then promoted him to the rank of General. Napoleon became a national hero at just 27 years old, assuming the role of General in the French Army. He then took command of the Army of Italy, which was the French forces operating in Italy, not the Italian Army. The troops were lacking in motivation, discipline, and supplies. Napoleon addressed this by delivering inspiring speeches, emphasizing the importance of discipline for victory and condemning looting and pillaging in conquered territories, stating that only cowards engage in such actions.

Napoleon’s armies did not engage in looting or pillaging territories. However, Napoleon himself had a passion for art and desired to establish a universal museum in Paris to showcase a vast collection of artworks from around the world. In fact, he even renamed the Louvre Museum after himself.

After returning to the Army of Italy, Napoleon led them to a famous victory against the Austrians in the Battle of Arcole. The battle is depicted in a well-known painting. Napoleon’s tactics involved rapid troop movement, varied formations, and surprise attacks on the enemy, which proved successful in winning the battle.

In 1798, as France considered invading the British Isles, Napoleon returned to Paris and refused to participate in the battle. He argued that the British Navy was too formidable, making any invasion impractical. Instead, he proposed a campaign in the Mediterranean, advancing southward to capture Egypt and block the route of the British to India.

Napoleon and Tipu Sultan:

Napoleon planned to assist Tipu Sultan of Mysore in his fight against the British. He started his campaign with 40,000 soldiers, sailing from Toulon on numerous ships. Along with the soldiers, he took more than 160 scientists, scholars, and artists with him, to document knowledge gained from new territories. The army moved southwards, taking over the island of Malta before reaching the Egyptian coast in Alexandria. Battles such as the Battle of Alexandria and the Battle of the Pyramids were fought, resulting in victories against the Ottoman army and local kings. The French flag flew over the Citadel of Qaitbay, following the footsteps of Alexander the Great and Caesar, and destined for greatness.

Napoleon Defeat:

Napoleon established the Institute of Egypt to study systematically the country’s history, culture, and resources while promoting Enlightenment ideals in Egypt. However, the success of Napoleon’s plan was short-lived. Within a few weeks, in August 1798, a formidable fleet of the British Navy attacked the French, destroying numerous French ships, and resulting in the death of a French admiral in the Battle of the Nile. A year later, in August 1799, following continued defeats, Napoleon abandoned his army clandestinely and fled from Egypt. Despite Napoleon’s ambitious military campaign, he failed to reach India and offer help to Tipu Sultan. Furthermore, he lost his hold on Egypt and Malta, which was captured first, and recaptured by the British.

Reasons of Discussing Napoleon Failures:

You may be wondering why I’m discussing the failed military campaign by Napoleon. There are two reasons.

• Firstly, despite the military losses, the campaign was scientifically successful. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone, a slab with the same message inscribed in three different languages, was a significant achievement in our understanding of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics. Besides, French scientists made notable discoveries about the indigenous trees and plants in Egypt, studied the architecture, and documented the use of Egyptian jars for food preservation.
• Secondly, the campaign’s importance lies in how Napoleon was received when he returned to France. Despite losing territories and abandoning his army, he was welcomed as a hero. This was due to the extensive pro-Napoleon propaganda that had been ongoing for years through various mediums like newspapers, paintings, official bulletins, songs, and poems.

During Napoleon’s reign, there were six newspapers in France. Some of these papers were established by Napoleon himself, while he took control over the others. These newspapers mainly covered various battles and Napoleon himself would set the narrative in them. He presented himself as a knowledgeable person and positive paintings and sketches were used to depict his heroic battles. When Napoleon chose the scientists for his Mediterranean campaign, seven pages were printed in the newspapers detailing each minute of the meeting. Napoleon’s speeches to his soldiers were also widely published, along with both factual and fictional childhood stories. Imaginary stories of Napoleon’s childhood were created, depicting great deeds he never actually performed.

Propaganda:

Let’s talk about propaganda. One of the notable examples is a piece commissioned by Napoleon himself, which portrays his Mediterranean campaign. In that he depicts him helping the sick in Jaffa and draws parallels to Jesus Christ. There is another painting illustrating the Battle of Marengo between the French and Austrian armies in 1800. In that painting, Napoleon is depicted crossing the Alps on horseback, inspired by Alexander’s sculpture. However, this is not how Napoleon actually crossed the Alps. These propaganda paintings were created to serve a specific purpose: to present Napoleon as a hero who crossed the Alps on a horse.

Napoleon’s ultimate goal was to become the King of France. He used propaganda to achieve this objective. When he came back to France from Egypt, there was a lot of conflict and corruption in the country. Hence, in November 1799, he planned a coup that led to the expulsion of the existing government. After that, a new government was established that was known as the Consulate government, with Napoleon as the First Consul. Two other individuals were appointed as aiding consuls, and a new constitution was introduced in France. Most French citizens supported it because of the widespread influence of propaganda. The propaganda portrayed Napoleon as a figure who was not limited by politics, but instead acted solely in the national interest of France and championed Enlightenment ideas.

Referendums:

• In order to gain support for the new constitution, a referendum was held in France, with Lucien, Napoleon’s brother and Minister of Interiors in France, announcing that 99.9% of the 3,013,000 voters supported the new constitution. This gave the impression that almost all French citizens were in favour of Napoleon. However, this was far from the truth. In reality, only about 1.5 million votes were cast in favour of Napoleon. In 1972, French historian Claude Langlois presented evidence revealing that the 1800 referendum was a complete fraud, with just over 50% of the votes cast in favour of Napoleon.
• Two years later, in 1802, another referendum took place, this time with the question posed to the public: Should Napoleon be appointed Consul for Life? Once again, the public voted, with “99.7% of voters” supporting Napoleon to hold power for life. Despite two fraudulent referendums, Napoleon still sought further validation.
• In 1804, a third referendum was conducted in France, asking whether Napoleon should become the King of France. The result of the referendum was overwhelmingly in favour of Napoleon, with “99.9% of the voters” voting in favour of him becoming the king. However, it wasn’t because Napoleon was trying to appease the masses or that the people had a true choice in the matter. In fact, Napoleon wasn’t one to hide his greed for power. He openly embraced his love for power and famously declared, “Power is my mistress. I have worked too hard at her conquest to allow anyone to take her away from me.” Striving for power was a common characteristic among kings and nobles of the time.

Napoleon Battles:

In the next decade, Napoleon engaged in a series of battles across Europe, driven by his love for power. These battles were interspersed with peace treaties like the one signed with Britain in 1802. However, the resumption of wars was inevitable as both Napoleon and the British thirsted for power. Many European nations joined the wars with Napoleon, not only for power but also for their survival. The kings and monarchs of Europe felt threatened by the French revolutionary ideology. They considered Napoleon a threat to their kingdoms. The left wing adhered to supporting equality, freedom, and the aspiration for national freedom, evolving into the foundation of Republicanism. This nationalist fervor quickly spread across Europe, leading to the emergence of revolutionaries challenging the reigning monarchies.

Liberator of Peoples and Founder of Republics:

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a series of wars were fought between monarchies and France. These wars were sparked by coalitions formed by the monarchs. In this context, Napoleon can be seen as a liberator who spread the slogans of freedom and revolution throughout Europe. When Napoleon’s forces entered Italy, he declared to the Italian people that the French army had come to break their chains. He reassured them that he had no ill will against the masses and was there to liberate them from kings and emperors who had oppressed them. As a result, Napoleon was viewed as a hero in Milan, Italy for liberating them from Austrian rule under King Francis II. In 1802, the Italian revolutionary and poet, Ugo Foscolo, praised Napoleon as the “Liberator of Peoples and Founder of Republics”.

Beethoven and Napoleon:

In 1803, Ludwig van Beethoven, a renowned music composer, paid tribute to Napoleon by naming his Symphony No. 3 after him. Beethoven considered Napoleon a hero for his promotion of democratic ideals and opposition to monarchy in Europe. However, when Napoleon crowned himself the king and conducted fraudulent referendums, Beethoven was disappointed and angry as he believed that Napoleon had betrayed the principles of the French Revolution. Beethoven subsequently removed Napoleon’s name from his symphony.

The Dictatorship of Napoleon:

Napoleon’s decisions deviated from the ideals of the French Revolution. In 1802, he passed two laws that reinstated the practice of slavery. Moreover, his views on women were regressive, emphasizing the importance of women based on the number of children they bore. Napoleon revoked many rights granted to women during the French Revolution, reinstating priority given to men in divorce laws.

Although the French Revolution had advocated for freedom of expression, Napoleon gradually imposed restrictions on it. Those who spoke against him were exiled, and free newspapers were systematically shut down. Despite bringing stability to France, Napoleon’s rule maintained a dictatorial character. If he had truly intended to spread the ideas of the French Revolution, he could have restored democracy in France.

Napoleon and his brothers:

I started this article by discussing Corsica and how Napoleon had dreamed of its independence during his childhood. However, when he became a king, he didn’t pursue the liberation of Corsica. Rather than bringing democracy to France, Napoleon appointed his brothers as kings in the territories he conquered. In May 1808, France initiated a war against Spain, which resulted in the Spanish King Carlos IV abdicating and Napoleon installing his brother Joseph as the new ruler. Before this, Joseph had been the king of Naples and Sicily. Napoleon’s younger brother Jerome was crowned the king of Westphalia, a region in present-day Germany. Moreover, when the Kingdom of Holland fell under Napoleon’s control in 1806, Louis, another of Napoleon’s brothers, was made the king of that region. Despite the thirst for power, there is a positive legacy left by Napoleon that’s worth mentioning.

Some Good Decisions:

Some decisions that Napoleon made had far-reaching benefits for the future of France and Europe.

1. The Napoleonic Code of 1804 is a landmark legal framework that provided France with a comprehensive and written set of laws.
2. The second achievement was the establishment of equality for males under the law, despite setbacks for women’s rights and the reintroduction of slavery. The equal rights given to male citizens by the law remained unchanged. Furthermore, Napoleon’s era marked the end of feudalism in France, and the same laws were enforced in the territories he occupied.
3. Secularism: During Napoleon’s rule, the French government adopted a secular stance, allowing individuals to practice their chosen religions, which led to religious freedom in France. In 1801, Christianity made a comeback in France after Napoleon signed an agreement with the Pope. However, the relationship between the Church and the Government never fully returned to the way it was before. The balance of power shifted more towards the government, which retained control over the selection of bishops and supervised the church’s finances. This significantly reduced the influence of the church in European affairs.
4. Forth, he created a national education system, establishing primary, secondary, and high schools, along with the University of France. The education system was standardized, and teachers were trained, leading to a rapid improvement in the quality of education. Additionally, technical schools, civil service schools, and military schools were regulated by the government.
5. Fifth, he modernized Paris’s water distribution system, upgrading old pumps, constructing a new canal to direct water to the city, and building 15 water fountains. He also modernized storehouses and granaries, and constructed eight new markets, including a wine market and a wheat market. This ensured that Parisians would never starve, and everything was organized efficiently.
6. Sixth, he reformed the legal system, creating a uniform code of laws that replaced the complex and inconsistent legal system of the Ancient Régime.
7. Seventh, he established a banking system, founding the Bank of France in 1800. This brought hyperinflation under control and stabilized the currency. He introduced a modern and efficient tax system, ending the exemptions that had been granted to nobility and kings, ensuring that everyone contributed to the tax base.

All of these developments helped to modernize and improve France, making it a more prosperous and organized country.

In conclusion, he wasn’t a clueless ruler despite Napoleon’s hunger for power. In fact, Napoleon was a highly intelligent and effective administrator who implemented several positive reforms for the French people. Some people compare Napoleon to Hitler, but in my opinion, such comparisons are entirely inaccurate. Unlike Hitler, Napoleon did not propagate hatred against any religion or community, nor did he use tactics of divide and rule. While Napoleon’s actions resulted in the deaths of millions, he was driven by his thirst for war and power.

Death of Napoleon:

Let’s discuss the events leading to Napoleon’s death. Despite his many victories, he also suffered defeats. For instance, when Russia violated the continental system that Napoleon had installed in 1812, he attacked Russia. However, the Russian forces refused to fight and instead retreated while setting fire to the battlefield, leaving nothing for Napoleon’s troops to use as provisions. Despite this, Napoleon’s army was able to reach Moscow. Unfortunately, the city was empty, and the Russians didn’t surrender even after waiting for a month. This left Napoleon’s hungry army with no choice but to retreat from the barren city.

In 1813, a coalition of countries including the United Kingdom, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden attacked Napoleon in the Battle of Leipzig, which dealt a significant blow to France. As a result, Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba in 1814. However, he made a dramatic comeback in 1815, rallying his soldiers and marching towards Paris. Although he briefly reclaimed the throne with public support, his rule lasted only three months. The United Kingdom and its allies waged another war against Napoleon, culminating in the Battle of Waterloo, which was the final battle of Napoleon.

After his defeat, Napoleon was exiled to the remote island of St Helena, where he died six years later in 1821, marking the end of his remarkable story.